The invention of leavened bread is attributed to the
Egyptians. The Greeks baked on grids in an oven like stricture. Romans cooked
their bread is household ovens made of brick and earth. It was in the Middle
Ages that the bakery trade began to develop, bread became very varied and many
different kinds of bread were produced.
Definition: Bread is food made from flour and water dough with yeast,
which is fermented, kneaded and baked in the oven. The action of yeast gives
bread its characteristic texture and flavour.
Bread is the only food, which, like wine, is present
on the table from start to finish of any meal; bread constitutes the
traditional accompaniment to all dishes. It is also the basic ingredient in
sandwiches, canapés, toasts, croutons & breadcrumbs. In addition to this it
is used widely in the preparations of the other dishes like, soups, gazpacho
& garlic soup, panadas, stuffing‘s & forcemeats, timbales, charlottes
& pudding and even in sauces. Good bread must have a crisp crust, an attractive
golden colour and as soft crumb. Growing state to quickly is a sign of bad
quality. Most bread should be served fresh but not hot. A daily intake of 300
gms provides 125gms carbohydrates 25gms proteins, 2 gms fat calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium potassium and it gives 750 calories.
The baking/making of bread
comprises of 3 main operations kneading fermentation and
baking.
The following ingredients are
necessary for bread making
1.
Maida
2.
Yeast
3.
Sugar
4.
Fat and
5.
Salt
1. Refined flour or Maida
Only strong and not weak flour is used for making
bread. Strong flour has reference to the character of flour. Wheat flour
contains both soluble and insoluble proteins. Proteins along with other
components join when water is added. When this occurs, two of the insoluble
proteins namely glutenin and gliadin join in the presence of water forming a
tough, somewhat rubbery material called gluten. Glutenin gives solidity to the
product whilst gliadin is the binding imparting the soft, sticky character to
gluten. The gluten of strong flour is tough, resists extension is capable of
withstanding prolonged periods of fermentation without breaking down producing
good loafs. Flour containing such gluten is capable of absorbing a high
percentage of water.
Diastatic enzymes present in the wheat flour affect
the gassing power of the flour. If flour is deficient in diastase the final
proving of the bread will be unsatisfactory. On the other hand, if too much
diastatic action occurs the bread will still be unsatisfactory having a
strictly crumb.
SALT
Why salt is
used in Bread making?
Bread made without salt is insipid and flavourless;
therefore, salt makes bread palatable and appetizing. The quantity of salt
needed is also the right quantity to exercise adequate control
over the speed of yeast action (1 Kg of flour is to 30 gm of salt) If too
much salt is added the bread will be too salty for pleasant eating whilst there
will also be slowing down of yeast action.
Dough with too little salt in them suffers because of
the lack of control over yeast activity and fermentation, allowing the
production of excessive acidity. Sat has a physical effect on the gluten of
flour. In reasonable quantities, it strengthens gluten and increases its
resistance to the general softening effects of fermentation. Too much salt will
completely rob it of its power of holding gas.
If salt is not added at all, then the yeast in the
dough will be able to consume excessive quantities of sugar during its
uncontrolled speedy action during fermentation that there may be insufficient
sugar left at baking time to give perfect crust colour.
Loaves made from dough containing too little salt
will lack volume because the gluten has not been strengthened sufficiently. The
weak gluten strands will break down giving crumbly bread with large holes in
texture.
Dough made with rather too much salt will have
toughened gluten, which will have been insufficiently ripened, producing bread
of subnormal volume and with unsightly holes in the texture.
Yeast
Yeast is living micro organism, the one used for
bread making is known as baker‘s yeast or scientifically as ―Saccharomycees Cerevisiae‖.
Like all living things yeast can only work well
between certain temperatures. The ideal and optimum temp, for the working of
yeast is between 780 and 820 F. It works steadily at 760F
but rather too slowly. Above 84°F the speed of fermentation is very great but fermentation of dough may be
undesirable. Above 1400F the proteins in yeast get coagulated, the
cells cease to function and then die. Yeast grows better in a slightly acid medium.
Yeast may be stored in a refrigerator at 36to 400
F. If no refrigerator is available, remove from packet and press it into a
clean, dry earthenware vessel. Stand the jar in cold water and cover with a
piece of clean muslin the ends of which dip into water.
For fermentation to occur normally dough must be made
at a suitable temperature. In very cold weather very hot water may be needed.
But under no conditions should the water temperature be above 1100F.
If salt comes into direct contact with yeast in
sufficient concentrations the yeast will be destroyed. This is because salt
will deprive the yeast cells of its water. The salt should be dissolved in
water separate from the yeast solution. When salt is approx 3% of the solution
its effect on yeast is not deadly but merely restrictive.
After making dough at the right temperature it is
essential to see that the dough retains that temperature during fermentation.
If it becomes chilled yeast action will slow down. The dough should be
protected from draught of air especially cold air. They should preferably be
fermented in bowls, which are bad conductors of heat.
Fats
Fats used in small quantities, act as a gluten
lubricant, the strands of which then slide over one another and so appear to
extend more easily, and the dough ripens more readily. The crumb is made
moister, is wither and more even in texture. Crust are thinner and more biscuit
like owing to the shortening properties of fats, and the general build of the
loaf is better. If fats are used in
heavy quantities it causes bread to be clammy and alter its eating qualities.
The undesirable characteristics that would be
apparent when using large quantities of fat can be counteracted by the use of
milk powder. Milk powder imparts bloom to the crust, makes the crumb a delicate
creamy yellow colour but makes the bread crumbly. Where both fat and milk are
used the crumb is creamy, soft, and even in texture crusts are thin and short
eating and the loaf volume very satisfactory.
SUGAR
There must be sufficient sugar in the dough at the
final proving stage from which the yeast can generate gas. Sucrose or glucose
may be added to dough if greater gassing powers are required. Therefore sugar
is needed for final proving to give sufficient volume to the loaf and for
caramelization on the crust of the bread during baking. The quantity of sugar
used in dough should be small. Sugar has a dispersing action on the gluten of flour and
large quantities can completely destroy its tenacity and extensibility.
Bread Making
There are many satisfactory methods of making bread
given below are details of each of the methods that may be employed for making
bread.
I Straight Dough Method
When the whole of the flour, yeast, salt, water yeast
food and enriching materials are taken and, at one operation, amalgamated by
hand or machine into dough, the method is called the straight dough method of
bread making. It is the least complicate of all dough making processes. The
greater the quantity of yeast the shorter the length of time the dough will
require in which to reach maturity and vice-versa. Excellent bread can be made
by suing extra yeast in a cool dough and adding a little extra salt. However to
obtain good results it is not advisable to speed up fermentation by use of high
temperature and a small quantity of salt.
II Delayed Salt Method
A simple but very effective variation of the straight
dough process is the delayed salt method. In
this the whole of the ingredients except the salt are mixed together to
make the dough which is then allowed to ferment for approx 30 min the salt is
then sieved over the surface of the
dough and thoroughly mixed.
By this process stronger flour are ripened more
quickly and extra flavour is produced in the bread. This is achieved because no
salt is present for most of the fermentation period hence yeast works more
rapidly as do acid forming bacteria present in the dough.
III FERMENT AND DOUGH
IV Sponge & Dough
A quarter of the amount of the total flour needed for
the final dough is removed and mixed with sufficient water to make very a soft
dough. Into this mixture a small quantity yeast and salt are mixed and allowed
to ferment slowly over a long period. The time can be regulated by the amount
of yeast used and the temperature at which the sponge is set. When the sponge has
cradled the production of an increased army of yeast cells, the remaining
ingredients are added and the dough is made.
V Flying sponge
Instead of making a sponge to lie for many hours a
similar mixture can be prepared with larger quantities of yeast that are normal
for straight dough process, and allowed to lie for an hour. They are referred
to as flying sponges because it takes less time to prepare the dough.
VI
No time dough
method
In this method dough is not fermented in the usual manner. It is allowed
to ferment for a short period so the twin function of fermentation i.e.
production of gas and conditioning of gluten are achieved to some extent by increasing the amount of yeast
and by vigorously beating the dough using mechanical dough mixers so that the
dough becomes a little slack and warm. The dough is then shaped and directly
deposited in bread moulds for final proving before they are baked. It is
possible to get a good product using this method but the product has poor
keeping quality and lacks aroma due to short fermentation time, the gluten and
starch are not conditioned to hold moisture and there is no flavour because
flavour producing bi-products of fermentation are absent because of increased
quantity of yeast present. The bread may have a strong yeast flavour.
Staling of Bakery Products and Mold Infectnion
There are three ways in which bakery products stale. They are, Starch
Retrogradation (firming of the crumb), getting infected by molds and rope; See
Below.
In simple terms, staling of crumb (firming of crumb) is the process the
starch molecules go through when they shrink upon cooling. Starch molecule
consists of a very long chain of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen that are stretched
out when warm and feel soft. Upon cooling, the chain shrinks and thus become
firm which is called staling. You have probably experienced that when a stale
product is warmed, it becomes soft. The starch chain has stretched again. Upon
cooling, it shrinks again and become firm.
Anti-Staling Ingredients:
1.
Emulsifiers. For the past several years bakers used
emulsifiers called bread softeners to produce bread that will remain soft for a
longer period of time. It is added
to the dough during mixing. Some of the more common ones are monoglycrides,
calcium stearoyl lactylate, and sodium stearoyl lactylate. The softening action
takes place after the bread is baked. Also, Potato bread will resist staling
because potatoes act as anti-staling ingredients to some degree. Some
anti-staling ingredients also perform as dough conditioners or dough strengtheners.
2. Enzymes. Enzyme manufacturers are hard at work on
generic engineering and protein engineering producing enzymes to extend the
shelf life of bread many fold. In a
paper presented at the 1999 American Society of Baking's Annual Convention, it
was stated that some of these enzymes
are available now. However, since every baker wants to have one better, enzyme
manufacturers will continue to work on developing better ones. It was also stated that there is a lag
time of between 2 and 3 years between the time a specific enzyme is identified
and actually having it available for the baker to use.
Advantages of Using Enzymes instead of Chemicals. Since enzymes are
produced from natural ingredients, they will find greater acceptance by the
housewife than when chemicals are used.
3. Mold and Mold Inhibitors. Sanitation plays a very
important role in preventing mold in bread. Mold spores do not survive baking
temperatures. The interior of the loaf, when it comes out of the oven is about 210 to 212 degrees F. which will destroy any mold
spores which may be present in the dough. Therefore, bread and other bakery
products can only be contaminated after they leave the oven.
Some of the more dangerous areas
for mold contmination are storage rooms, and slicing machine blades which
come in direct contact with the interior of the loaf where there is an abundant
supply of food and moisture. Mold spores also thrive in dark places. You can
extend the length of time that it takes bakery products to mold by several days
by using Mold Inhibitors such as Calcium Propionate for yeast raised doughs and
sodium propionate in chemically leavened products. Propionates are present in
many foods, but in very small amounts. Swiss Cheese, however is an exception.
For this reason, Swiss Cheese rarely molds, unless it is improperly developed.
Propionates may be obtained by the oxidization of propyl alcohol, forming
propionic acid. The propionic acid is in turn combined with other chemicals to
form the well known Sodium and Calcium propionates sold under different Trades
Names. Mold Inhibitors react as an alkaline in doughs, and since yeast doesn't
like an alkaline condition, Mineral Yeast Foods containing monocalcium
phosphate are added to the dough. Monocalcium Phosphate reacts as an acid in
doughs therefore counter-acting the alkaline which is formed by the
propionates. Also, vinegar can be used at the rate of about 1 pint per 100
pounds of flour. Inhibitors are called inhibitors, because not enough is used
to kill the mold. They only retard the growth of molds. Bread will mold
eventually if kept in a warm moist invironment. The amounts of Calcium
Propionates to use in bread varies with the climate, season of the year, or
type of product. Dark Breads require more than White Breads. For average
climates, 2.5 to 3.5 ounces are used per 100 pounds of flour in White Breads
and 4.0 to 5.0 ounces are used in Dark Breads.
Types and colour of Molds. There are many type of molds and they have differenct colors. Mold spores are practically everywhere, because they are very tiny and are carried in the air. They are so tiny that thry can only be seen under a microscope. Mold Spores are like seeds that you plant
in the garden. When they come in contact with the proper food, moisture and
warmth, the spores produce mold plants which you can see with the naked eye.
Rope. Rope is a bread disease caused by the bacteria, Bacillus
mesentericus. This disease breaks down the cells of the bread and leaves a
sticky, pasty mass. When the crumb is pressed together, and pulled
apart, it will stretch into long, sticky, web-like strands. The product will
have the odor of over-ripe cantalope. The rope bacteria are too small to see
with the naked eye, but they can be seen with a microscope. The bacteria can be
present in the ingredients, especially flour and yeast. Unlike mold, rope
spores are not destroyed by baking temperatures. Calcium propionate, sodium
diacetate or one pint of vinegar per 100 pounds of flour can be used in bread
doughs to increase the shelf life of the product. If the bakery is contaminated, thorough cleaning with special chemical will be neccesary and/ or the bakery may have to be steamed cleaned.
External Bread Faults
Symptom
|
Causes
|
Crust too dark
|
-
Oven temperature too high
-
Excessive milk or sugar.
-
Excessive baking time.
-
Over proofing.
|
Crust too light
|
-
Oven temperature too low.
-
Insufficient milk or sugar.
-
Insufficient baking time.
-
Insufficient proofing.
-
Insufficient mixing.
|
Crust broken
|
-
Insufficient proofing.
-
Insufficient liquid.
|
Crust too hard
|
-
Oven temperature too high
-
Insufficient proofing.
-
Insufficient sugar or shortening.
-
Excessive steam.
-
Insufficient liquid.
-
Baking time too long.
|
Crust too soft
|
-
Oven temperature too low
-
Excessive sugar/egg yolks/shortening.
-
Excessive oil/margarine as a wash.
-
Insufficient steam during baking.
-
Baking time too short or wrong bread
machine setting.
|
Internal Bread Faults
Symptom
|
Causes
|
Coarse and irregular grain
|
-
Improper mixing procedures.
-
Stiff batter.
-
Careless or poor depositing in the
pans.
-
Oven too cool, (baked too slowly).
|
Dense grain
|
-
Excessive liquid in the batter.
-
Improper mixing procedure.
|
Off-color breads
|
-
Improper mixing procedure.
-
Oven too cool, (baked too slowly).
-
Unclean equipment.
|
If
raisins, nuts or dried fruit sunk to the bottom
|
-
Pieces of fruit were too large and too heavy.
-
Sugary syrup on the outside of the fruit was not washed off- causing
the pieces of fruit to slide
through the mixture as it heated.
-
Washed and dried fruit was not dusted with flour before being added to the mixture.
-
Bread mixture was over beaten or was too wet so it could not hold the fruit in place.
-
Oven temperature was too low, causing the mixture to melt before it
set to hold the fruit in place.
|
Symptom
|
Causes
|
Batter over-flowed the
pans
|
-
Wrong adjustments to recipes (too much
liquid, flour etc.)
-
Wrong size pan used. Mixture should fill 2/3 of pan.
|
Poor flavor
|
-
Improper mixing procedure.
-
Improper cleaning and greasing of the pans.
-
Faulty baking conditions.
-
Improper cleaning of the equipment.
|
Breads too tough
|
-
Excessive mixing.
-
Batter too stiff (insufficient water).
-
Batter too thin (excessive water).
|
Lacks body/structure
|
-
Excessive mixing
-
Insufficient liquid.
|
Dries out too soon
|
-
Excessive baking time.
-
Insufficient liquid.
-
Improper mixing procedures.
-
Cooled in a drafty location.
|
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